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By Q. Diego. Alma College.

Construct validation of the Sternberg Triarchic abilities test: Comment and reanalysis cheap renagel 800mg amex. A comprehensive meta-analysis of the predictive validity of the graduate record examinations: Implications for graduate student selection and performance discount renagel 400mg online. The relationship between the scholastic assessment test and general cognitive ability. The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence and changes in regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate following learning. The impact of childhood intelligence on later life: Following up the Scottish mental surveys of 1932 and 1947. Long-term effects of an early childhood intervention on educational achievement and juvenile arrest: A 15-year follow-up of low-income children in public schools. How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? Cohort effects in cognitive development of children as revealed by cross-sectional sequences. A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health. Emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional leadership: A meta- analysis. Some historical and scientific issues related to research on emotional intelligence. Regulating the interpersonal self: Strategic self-regulation for coping with rejection sensitivity. Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Willpower in a cognitive-affective processing system: The dynamics of delay of gratification. Explain how very high and very low intelligence is defined and what it means to have them. Define stereotype threat and explain how it might influence scores on intelligence tests. Most people in Western cultures tend to agree with the idea that intelligence is an important personality variable that should be admired in those who have it. But people from Eastern cultures tend to place less emphasis on individual intelligence and are more likely to view intelligence as reflecting wisdom and the desire to improve the society as a whole rather than only themselves (Baral & Das, 2004; Sternberg, [1] 2007). And in some cultures, such as the United States, it is seen as unfair and prejudicial to argue, even at a scholarly conference, that men and women might have different abilities in domains such as math and science and that these differences might be caused by genetics (even though, as we have seen, a great deal of intelligence is determined by genetics). In short, although psychological tests accurately measure intelligence, it is cultures that interpret the meanings of those tests and determine how people with differing levels of intelligence are treated. In a normal distribution, the bulk of the scores fall toward the middle, with many fewer scores falling at the extremes. These sex differences mean that about 20% more men than women fall in the extreme (very smart or very dull) ends of the distribution (Johnson, [2] Carothers, & Deary, 2009). Boys are about five times more likely to be diagnosed with the [3] reading disability dyslexia than are girls (Halpern, 1992), and are also more likely to be classified as mentally retarded. About 1% of the United States population, most of them males, fulfill the criteria for mental retardation, but some children who are diagnosed as mentally retarded lose the classification as they get older and better learn to function in society. Mental retardation is divided into four categories: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. One cause of mental retardation is Down syndrome, a chromosomal disorder leading to mental retardation caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1,000 births, although its prevalence rises sharply in those born to older mothers. People with Down syndrome typically exhibit a distinctive pattern of physical features, including a flat nose, upwardly slanted eyes, a protruding tongue, and a short neck. Societal attitudes toward individuals with mental retardation have changed over the past decades. We no longer use terms such as “moron,‖ “idiot,‖ or “imbecile‖ to describe these people, although these were the official psychological terms used to describe degrees of retardation in the past. Supreme Court ruled that the execution of people with mental retardation is “cruel and unusual [6] punishment,‖ thereby ending this practice (Atkins v.

Further cheap 800 mg renagel with visa, it is suggested that such intimacy may be reflected in a reduction in conflict and subsequent psychological problems (Smith et al discount renagel 800 mg on-line. A recent study directly explored whether the mother–daughter relationship was important in terms of a ‘modelling hypothesis’ (i. Therefore, it examined both the mothers’ and the daughters’ own levels of body dissatisfaction and the nature of the relationship between mother and daughter (Ogden and Steward 2000). The results showed no support for the modelling hypothesis but suggested that a relationship in which mothers did not believe in either their own or their daughter’s autonomy and rated projection as important was more likely to result in daughters who were dissatisfied with their bodies. Further, it may be related to social factors such as ethnicity, social class and the mother’s own body dissatisfaction. In addition, it is possible that the impact of such social factors is mediated through psychological factors such as beliefs and the nature of relationships. Research has suggested that all these factors illustrate a central role for the need for control. The role of control Beliefs relating to materialism, competitiveness, achievement, autonomy, the role of women and a projected relationship between mother and daughter all have one thing in common. It is being assumed that she can achieve, she can compete and she can fulfil the desires of others if only she were to put her mind to it; anything can be achieved if the effort is right. It is particularly a lot of pressure to place upon a woman who may well feel that the world is still designed for men. And it is even more pressure to place upon a young woman who may feel that the world is designed for adults. Such expectations may result in feelings of being out of control: ‘how can I achieve all these things? A family’s beliefs may make us want to control and change a whole range of factors. Body dissatisfaction may well be an expression of this lack of control (Orbach 1978; Ogden 1999). Herman and Mack 1975; Herman and Polivy 1984) was developed to evaluate the causes and consequences of dieting (referred to as restrained eating) and suggests that dieters show signs of both undereating and overeating. Dieting and undereating Restrained eating aims to reduce food intake and several studies have found that at times this aim is successful. This experimental method involves giving subjects either a high-calorie preload (e. After eating/drinking the preload, subjects are asked to take part in a taste test. The subjects are left alone for a set amount of time to rate the foods and then the amount they have eaten is weighed (the subjects do not know that this will happen). The aim of the preload/taste test method is to measure food intake in a controlled environment (the laboratory) and to examine the effect of preloading on their eating behaviour. Dieting and overeating In opposition to these findings, several studies have suggested that higher levels of restrained eating are related to increased food intake. For example, Ruderman and Wilson (1979) used a preload/taste test procedure and reported that restrained eaters consumed significantly more food than the unrestrained eaters, irrespective of pre- load size. In particular, restraint theory has identified the disinhibition of restraint as characteristic of overeating in restrained eaters (Herman and Mack 1975; Spencer and Fremouw 1979; Herman et al. This form of disinhibition or ‘the what the hell effect’ illustrates overeating in response to a high-calorie preload. Disinhibition in general has been defined as ‘eating more as a result of the loosening restraints in response to emotional distress, intoxication or preloading’ (Herman and Polivy 1989: 342), and its definition paved the way for a wealth of research examining the role of restraint in predicting overeating behaviour. The causes of overeating Research has explored possible mechanisms for the overeating shown by restrained eaters. These are described below and include the causal model of overeating, the boundary model of overeating, cognitive shifts, mood modification, denial, escape theory, overeating as relapse and the central role for control. They suggested that dieting and bingeing were causally linked and that ‘restraint not only precedes overeating but contributes to it causally’ (Polivy and Herman 1983). This suggests that attempting not to eat, paradoxically increases the probability of overeating; the specific behaviour dieters are Fig. The causal analysis of restraint represented a new approach to eating behaviour and the prediction that restraint actually caused overeating was an interesting reappraisal of the situation. Wardle further developed this analysis (Wardle 1980) and Wardle and Beales (1988) experimentally tested the causal analysis of over- eating. They randomly assigned 27 obese women to either a diet group, an exercise group or a no treatment control group for seven weeks. At weeks four and six all subjects took part in a laboratory session designed to assess their food intake. The results showed that subjects in the diet condition ate more than both the exercise and the control group supporting a causal link between dieting and overeating. From this analysis the overeat- ing shown by dieters is actually caused by attempts at dieting. According to the model, food intake is motivated by a physiologically determined hunger boundary and deterred by a physiologically determined satiety boundary. In addition, the boundary model suggests that the food intake of restrained eaters is regulated by a cognitively determined ‘diet boundary’.

Furthermore purchase renagel 800 mg on-line, the results showed that this association between craving for cigarettes and food was greater in women than men 800mg renagel fast delivery, and particularly apparent in dieting women. These studies support a cross-behavioural perspective of addictions and suggest an interrelationship between different behaviours. It is possible that because women dieters may use smoking as a means to reduce their eating they develop an association between these behaviours. It is also possible that the substitution between addictive behaviours may also exist between other behaviours such as alcohol and smoking (stopping smoking increases drinking), or gambling and eating (stopping gambling increases eating). There are many different theories to explain why people smoke or drink and how they can be encouraged to adopt healthy behaviours. This chapter examined the different models of addiction, including the moral model, the disease models and the social learning perspective. Finally, this chapter examined the interrelationship between different behaviours, in particular smoking and eating, to examine the validity of a cross- behavioural perspective. Theories of addictions and addictive behaviour emphasize either the psychological or physiological processes. This separation is reflected in the differences between the disease models and the social learning perspectives. It is often assumed that the most recent theoretical perspective is an improvement of previous theories. In terms of addictive behaviours, the moral model is seen as more naïve than the disease model, which is more naïve than a social learning theory perspective. However, perhaps these different models also illustrate different (and not necessarily better) ways of explaining behaviour and of describing the individual. This book examines the different theories of addictive behaviours and in particular outlines the contribution of social learning theory. This book provides a detailed analysis and background to relapse prevention and applies this approach to a variety of addictive behaviours. This book illustrates the extent to which different addictive behaviours share common variables in both their initiation and maintenance and discusses the interrelationship between physiological and psychological factors. This is a very clearly written accessible book which describes physiological and psychosocial reasons for smoking and provides an excellent account of smoking cessation strategies. Three main psychological perspectives which have been used to study food intake are then described. First, the chapter describes developmental models of eating behaviour with their focus on exposure, social learning and associative learning. Second, it examines cognitive theories with their emphasis on motivation and social cognition models. Third, it explores the emphasis on weight concern and the role of body dissatisfaction and restrained eating. Dinner is later described as similar to breakfast with ‘no vegetables, boiled meat, no made dishes being permitted much less fruit, sweet things or pastry. Similarly in the 1840s Dr Kitchener recommended in his diet book a lunch of ‘a bit of roasted poultry, a basin of good beef tea, eggs poached. Nowadays, there is, however, a consensus among nutritionists as to what constitutes a healthy diet (DoH 1991). Food can be considered in terms of its basic constituents: carbohydrate, protein, alcohol and fat. Descriptions of healthy eating tend to describe food in terms of broader food groups and make recommendations as to the relative consumption of each of these groups as follows. Other recommendations for a healthy diet include a moderate intake of alcohol (a maximum of 3–4 units per day for men and 2–3 units per day for women), the consump- tion of fluoridated water where possible, a limited salt intake of 6g per day, eating unsaturated fats from olive oil and oily fish rather than saturated fats from butter and margarine and consuming complex carbohydrates (e. It is also recommended that men aged between 19 and 59 require 2550 calories per day and that similarly aged women require 1920 calories per day although this depends upon body size and degree of physical activity (DoH 1995). Diet is linked to health in two ways: by influencing the onset of illness and as part of treatment and management once illness has been diagnosed. Eating disorders are linked to physical problems such as heart irregularities, heart attacks, stunted growth, osteoporosis and reproduction. Obesity is linked to diabetes, heart disease and some forms of cancer (see Chapter 15). In addition, some research suggests a direct link between diet and illnesses such as heart disease, cancer and diabetes (see Chapters 14 and 15). Much research has addressed the role of diet in health and although at times controversial, studies suggest that foods such as fruits and vegetables, oily fish and oat fibre can be protective whilst salt and saturated fats can facilitate poor health. Diet and treating illness Diet also has a role to play in treating illness once diagnosed. Obese patients are mainly managed through dietary based interventions (see Chapter 15). Patients diagnosed with angina, heart disease or following a heart attack are also recommended to change their lifestyle with particular emphasis on stopping smoking, increasing their physical activity and adopting a healthy diet (see Chapter 15). Dietary change is also central to the management of both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.

Anticipate and fulfill client’s needs until satisfactory com- munication patterns are established effective renagel 400mg. Learn (from family discount 400mg renagel otc, if possible) special words client uses that are different from the norm. Identify nonverbal gestures or signals that client may use to convey needs if verbal communication is absent. Some children with mental retardation, particularly at the severe level, can only learn by systematic habit training. Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence ● 19 Outcome Criteria 1. Long-term Goal Client will be able to interact with others using behaviors that are socially acceptable and appropriate to developmental level. Explain to other clients the meaning of some of client’s nonverbal gestures and signals. Others may be more accepting of client’s differentness if they have a better understanding of his or her behavior. Use simple language to explain to client which behaviors are acceptable and which are not. Establish a procedure for behavior modification that offers rewards for appropriate be- haviors and renders an aversive reinforcement in response to the use of inappropriate behaviors. Positive, negative, and aversive reinforcements can contribute to desired changes in behavior. The privileges and penalties are individually deter- mined as caregiver learns the likes and dislikes of client. In 2009, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that in the United States 1. These include autistic disorder, Rett’s disor- der, childhood disintegrative disorder, pervasive developmen- tal disorder not otherwise specified, and Asperger’s disorder. Onset of the disorder occurs before age 3, and in most cases it runs a chronic course, with symptoms persisting into adulthood. Studies with both monozygotic and dizygotic twins have also provided evidence of a genetic involvement. Certain developmental problems, such as postnatal neu- rological infections, congenital rubella, phenylketonuria, and fragile X syndrome, also have been implicated. Failure to form interpersonal relationships, characterized by unresponsiveness to people; lack of eye contact and facial re- sponsiveness; indifference or aversion to affection and physical contact. In early childhood, there is a failure to develop coop- erative play and friendships. Impairment in communication (verbal and nonverbal) char- acterized by absence of language or, if developed, often an immature grammatical structure, incorrect use of words, echolalia, or inability to use abstract terms. Bizarre responses to the environment, characterized by resis- tance or extreme behavioral reactions to minor occurrences; abnormal, obsessive attachment to peculiar objects; ritualis- tic behaviors. Common Nursing Diagnoses and Interventions for the Client with Autistic Disorder (Interventions are applicable to various health care settings, such as in- patient and partial hospitalization, community outpatient clinic, home health, and private practice. Intervene to protect child when self-mutilative behaviors, such as head banging or other hysterical behaviors, become evident. A helmet may be used to protect against head banging, hand mitts to prevent hair pulling, and appropriate pad- ding to protect extremities from injury during hysterical movements. Try to determine if self-mutilative behaviors occur in response to increasing anxiety and, if so, to what the anxiety may be attributed. Offer self to child during times of increasing anxiety, in or- der to decrease need for self-mutilative behaviors and provide feelings of security. Anxiety is maintained at a level at which client feels no need for self-mutilation. Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence ● 23 Long-term Goal Client will initiate social interactions (physical, verbal, nonver- bal) with caregiver by discharge from treatment. Convey a manner of warmth, acceptance, and availability as cli- ent attempts to fulfill basic needs. These characteristics enhance establishment and maintenance of a trusting relationship. The autistic client may feel threatened by an onslaught of stimuli to which he or she is unaccustomed. Support client with your presence as he or she endeavors to relate to others in the environment. The presence of an individual with whom a trusting relationship has been established provides a feeling of security. Client uses eye contact, facial responsiveness, and other nonverbal behaviors in interactions with others.