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Recombination between subtypes then mixes the distinct phylogenetic histories of the subtypes order 100mg topiramate. Such re- combinations probably have become increasingly common topiramate 200mg with mastercard, for example, the admixtures of subtypes occurring along the routes of intravenous drug user transmissions in China (Piyasirisilp et al. Drug users in Greece and Cyprus also appear to be fertile sources of recombinants between subtypes (Gao et al. Such recombination between antigenic sites can strongly inuence the evolutionary dynamics of antigenic variation because new genotypes can be generated by combinations of existing variants rather than waiting for rare combinations of new mutations. Those studies dened strains mainly by measurement of genetic variability at nonanti- genic loci (Enright and Spratt 1999). In this section, I focus on genetic variability between lineages when dened by dierences at antigenic loci. Immune pressure by hosts can potentially separate the parasite population into discrete, nonoverlap- ping antigenic types (Gupta et al. Suppose that a haploid parasite with alleles at two dierent loci, A/B,infectsmany hosts during an epidemic, leaving most hosts recovered and immune to any parasite genotype with either A or B. Thus, host immunity favors strong linkage disequilibrium in the parasites, dominated by the two nonover- lapping genotypes A/B and A /B. Few data exist on the degree of antigenic overlap between genotypes (reviewed by Gupta et al. But, as with most population genetic patterns, other processes can lead to thesameobservations. Forexample,thethree common types might just happen to be the strains circulating most widely among the individuals sampled. Thosestrains might be com- mon because of chance events that led to mild epidemics caused by afewdierenttypes. Or those types may have advantageous alleles at other loci, possibly antigenic but not necessarily so. The pattern by itself is important for the design of vaccines and the study of epidemiological distributions. If discrete antigenic strains occur, are they associated with other com- ponents of the genome that code for attributes such as virulence? What processes can potentially structure populations into discrete, nonoverlapping antigenic combinations? Immune selection is one pos- sibility, but any process that reduces gene ow relative to the scale of sampling tends to create nonrandom associations between loci. How can one dierentiate between the various processes that lead to similar patterns? A clear understanding of the processes that reduce gene ow and their consequences (Hastings and Wedgwood-Oppenheim 1997) can help. Direct observations of immune selection disfavoring recombinant antigenic types would be useful, but perhaps dicult to obtain. The population of parasites within the host undergoes selection that depends on the amount of ge- netic variation between parasites within the host. For example, only a few parasites may colonize a host, or all of the para- sites may have come from a single donor that itself had little genetic variation among its parasites. If initial genetic variability is low, then selection within the host depends primarily on de novo mutations that arise during the population expansion ofthe parasites. By contrast, high initial genetic variability within hosts causes intense selection between coinfecting genotypes. Theisland structure of parasite populations resembles the genetic structure of multicellular organisms when taking account of selection within individuals. Each new organism begins asasinglecell or, in some clonal organisms, as a small number of progenitor cells. Genetic variation may arise from the small number of progenitor cells or from de novo mutations. Thereissome general theory on the population genetics of mutation and selection within individuals (Slatkin 1984; Buss 1987; Orive 1995; Michod 1997; Otto and Hastings 1998). Levin and Bull (1994) discussed how selection within and between hosts can shape patterns of parasite life history (reviewed by Frank 1996). But there has been little work on the consequences of island population structure for antigenic variation. Hastings and Wedgwood-Oppenheim (1997) illustrated how a quanti- tative theory of island-model genetics can be used to understand the buildup or decay of linkage disequilibrium. Ifound one study that develops the theory of island population struc- ture for parasites. They developed the theory of island population structure for parasites to compare therelativestrengths of natural se- lection and stochastic processes that can cause genetic variability. Analysis of nucle- otide sequences for this particular gene suggested that natural selec- tion acts primarily in a purifying way to remove deleterious mutations. Consequently, their model describes the accumulation of nucleotide di- versity shaped by two opposing forces. On the one hand, stochastic eects occur because only a small number of viruses invade each host the founders of that island.

Besides the vitamin mix provided when dead rabbits are fed to the captive colony buy topiramate 200mg with visa, beta-carotene is also added to the regular diet starting six to eight weeks prior to breeding season and until the pairs have copulated purchase 200 mg topiramate otc. The results of histopathology and immunochemistry studies in Iberian lynx are exhaustively discussed in another chapter (Jimnez et al. Despite the relative small size of the Iberian lynx ex situ population and the short period of time studied Fig. This section focuses on the diseases observed in animals of the Ex situ Conservation Programme. Miscarriages and premature births Between 2005 and 2008, the Ex situ Programme has seen the birth of 34 offspring, seven of which were either premature or miscarried. The normal gestation period of captive Iberian lynxes seems to vary between 63 and 66 days (n=15; Vargas et al. One female whelped two young after 56 days of gestation; one was dead, while the other was abandoned by the mother and died 24 hours later. The necropsies of these two individuals revealed a generalized congestion and hemorrhage without any other lesions or noteworthy laboratory results. Another female gave birth to two premature offspring after 61 days of gestation and abandoned them immediately thereafter. One was born dead, while the other one with a septicemia survived thanks to intensive medical care. The animal had been vaccinated two days earlier, and although its body condition was poor at the time of capture, the surveillance cameras showed that its behavior and activity were normal. An analysis of vaccines of the same lot did not reveal any viral replication or bacterial growth. An idiopathic chylothorax was diagnosed due to the impossibility to determine the cause of the observed signs. The chylothorax may have been caused by trauma, because the primiparous mother had been hand- raised, so never been correctly socialized. The most plausible hypothesis regarding this specifc case is that trauma might have caused a lesion of a lymphatic vessel, which could then have led to the chylothorax. Clostridiosis Several adult animals presented gastrointestinal signs in the spring of 2006. In most affected animals, vomiting was sporadic, while they maintained their appetite and showed normal behavior. Another female vomited once to three times per week during 11 weeks, sometimes with diarrhea. The female was rearing two offspring during this period, but the young did not show any signs of disease. Chemical immobilization for full exam and sampling was not performed in the most severely affected females because they were still rearing their offspring, and because their general status allowed a conservative approach to continue excluding possible etiologies. Finally, it was determined that the signs had been caused by rabbit meat contaminated with enterotoxins, and Clostridium was isolated in microbiological cultures. It is possible that a delayed evisceration of the rabbit carcasses led to contamination of the fesh with intestinal contents. In addition to changing the food source (individually packed rabbit meat for human consumption is currently used), all animals were treated with 177 omeprazol and amoxicillin (Clamoxyl, Pfzer) or amoxicillin with clavulanic acid (Synulox, Pfzer). The etiology could not be determined, but the case was resolved by administering prednisone (Dacortin, Merck) and marbofoxacine (Marbocyl, Vtoquinol). A psychogenic dermatitis related to stress caused by repeated capture and immobilization was suspected. Tooth abscess Infammation was observed on the left side of the snout of a male aged four months; the animal did not present any other signs. During chemical immobilization, the infammation was attributed to the persistence of a deciduous canine, and an associated abscess from which Proteus mirabilis was isolated. The problem was resolved without complications by extraction of the canine, wound cleaning, and administration of spiramycin and metronidazole (Rhodogil, Aventhis Pharma). Dermatomycosis An alopecic area was observed on the neck of a captive-born, 5-month-old female that shared an enclosure with two female littermates and the mother. The animal was examined under anesthesia, and additional alopecic and erythematous areas were found on face and extremities. It was assumed that the littermates were also affected, although no lesions were observed by means of the surveillance cameras, and the animals were not immobilized for examination. Cultures and biopsies revealed that the cause of alopecia was an infection with Trichophyton mentagrophytes. The fungi had probably been transmitted to the lynx from the live rabbits used as food items, but no cause-effect relationship could be proved. All the family unit who was sharing the same enclosure was treated with itraconazol (Itrafungol, Esteve) administered in the food. Griseofulvine was not used because toxic effects have been described in other felids (Wack et al. Another hand-reared offspring of the 2008 breeding season, and two naturally-raised offspring, were affected by a dermatomycosis also caused by T. No systemic treatment was administered, and the animals recovered without complications.

Thus topiramate 100 mg free shipping, a contemporary high priority in felid research is determining ways to reduce acrosomal damage during sperm cooling purchase topiramate 200 mg without prescription. Even with these milestones, embryo cryopreservation is not being used as a management tool, and there are no large-scale embryo banks for any wild felid species. In general, given the availability of good quality oocytes and sperm, then gamete interaction can occur readily in vitro, and embryos can form. Furthermore, there always is the question: What should be the recipient for embryos produced in vitro (Pukazhenthi and Wildt, 2004)? For example, to use this technique to beneft lions (or any cat species) would require maintaining many lion embryo recipients, an expensive, labor-intensive undertaking that would take up valuable captive breeding space. In the case of wild carnivores, the management goal is different to sustain all existing gene diversity. There has been substantial progress, especially involving in vitro maturation of intraovarian oocytes recovered by laparoscopy or at necropsy (see review, Gmez and Pope, 2005). There also has been substantial discussion and research in felids pertaining to nuclear transfer (cloning). The relevance (and irrelevance) of nuclear transfer for wildlife has been thoughtfully addressed by critser et al. We ascribe to these authors argument that, rather than asking is nuclear transfer applicable to wildlife, that it is more prudent to ask as the technology evolves, how can nuclear transfer become a useful tool in a repertoire of assisted breeding technology? Furthermore, in cases of near extinction, nuclear transfer could be the only recourse for preventing species loss. There have been notable successes, including the frst domestic cat produced via cloning (Shin et al. This was followed by the production of cloned and living African wild cat kittens born to domestic cat surrogates (Gmez and Pope, 2005; Gmez et al. Pregnancies also have been established after transferring cloned black- footed cat embryos to domestic recipients, but offspring were not produced. Fetal resorption and abortion have been frequently observed at various stages of pregnancy after transfer of African wild cat cloned embryos into domestic cat recipients (Gmez et al. Abnormalities, such as abdominal organ exteriorization and respiratory failure and septicemia have been the main causes of mortality in neonatal cloned kittens. Without this hypothesis-driven approach, most of what we know about these fascinating species is little more than anecdotal. Thus, our frst priority should always be the need for characterizing these species and producing more fundamental data. This indeed is a major task given the sheer numbers of species in the family Felidae and limited accessibility to research animals and funding. Once generated, we also have discovered the utility of applying scholarly knowledge to the improved management and conservation of wild felids. The cheetah is a useful model, although even this species requires substantially more research to ensure that reproductive capacity is maximized in zoos. Additionally, whenever possible, the new knowledge needs to be applied to species in nature. In the case of the cheetah, one of our contemporary projects is the development of a genome (sperm) bank in a country of origin, namibia in southern Africa (crosier et al. Expanding the cheetah example to the many other deserving felid species is a high priority. These advances in wild felid biology have only been possible through partnerships collaborations among managers of wild felids and diverse scientifc disciplines across many institutions. The authors are grateful to the hundreds of individuals and organizations worldwide who have cooperated to understand the biology of wild felids to enhance knowledge and management capability. Understanding the basic phenomenon and signifcance of teratospermia in felids, reproductive biology of wild felids by monitoring of faecal in: concannon, P. Which reproductive technologies are most relevant to studying, managing Critser, J. Reproduction, Fertility and nuclear transfer technology to wildlife species, in: Holt, W. Applications of emerging technologies to the study and conservation of threatened and endangered species. Impact of social management on reproductive, nondomestic carnivores, in: Fowler, M. Genome resource banks: Living collections for of artifcial insemination in felids and mustelids. Ju lIn ga r d e, nata l I a gan, ra q u e l gonzlez, cr I s t I n a cr e spo a n d lu c a arr e g u I A Genetic Resource Bank and assisted reproduction for the critically endangered Iberian lynx Un Banco de Recursos Genticos y reproduccin asistida para el crticamente amenazado lince ibrico ed u a r d o r. Por ello, es importante considerar estrategias adicionales para la conservacin de la variabilidad gentica de poblaciones amenazadas. Las tecnologas reproductivas ofrecen nuevas soluciones para facilitar el manejo gentico e incluyen el desarrollo de bancos de recursos genticos para conservar gametos, embriones y tejidos somticos que pueden ser de gran apoyo a programas de conservacin in situ y ex situ.