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The nucleus is enclosed in the nuclear membrane and contains chromosomes; the number and composition of chromosomes and the number of genes on each chromosome are characteristic of each species discount valacyclovir 1000 mg. It is composed of a semifluid gelatinous nutrient matrix and cytoplasmic organelles including endoplasmic reticulum purchase 500 mg valacyclovir amex, ribosomes, Golgi complex, mitochondria, centrioles, microtubules, lysosomes and vacoules. Cell Wall A cell wall is found as an external structure of plant cells, algae, and fungi. Waterborne Diseases ©6/1/2018 28 (866) 557-1746 It is different from the simple cell wall of plant cells and is made up of macromolecular polymer-peptidoglycan (protein and polysaccharide chain). Cilia and Flagella Some eukaryotic cells possess relatively long and thin structures called flagella. Cilia are also organs of locomotion but are shorter and more numerous Structure of a Procaryotic Cell All bacteria are procaryotes and are simple cells. Chromosome The chromosome of a prokaryotic cell is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane, it has no definite shape and no protein material associated with it. Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is a semi-liquid that surrounds the chromosome and is contained within the plasma membrane. Located within the cytoplasm are several ribosomes, which are the sites of protein synthesis. Cytoplasmic granules occur in certain species of bacteria which can be specifically stained and used to identify the bacteria. Cell Membrane The Cell Membrane is similar to that of the eukaryotic cell membrane. It is selectively permeable and controls the substances entering or leaving the cell. When highly organized and firmly attached to the cell wall, this layer is called a capsule or if it is not highly organized and not firmly attached, a slime layer. Capsules consist of complex sugars or polysaccharides combined with lipids and proteins. The composition of the capsule is useful in differentiating between different types of bacteria. Capsules are usually detected by negative staining, where the bacterial cell and the background become stained but the capsule remains unstained. Encapsulated bacteria produce colonies on nutrient agar that are smooth, mucoid and glistening, whereas the noncapsulated bacteria produce rough and dry colonies. Capsules enable the bacterial species to attach to mucus membranes and protect the bacteria from phagocytosis. Flagellated bacteria are said to be motile while non-flagellated bacteria are generally non-motile. The number and arrangement of flagella are species specific and can be used to classify bacteria. Waterborne Diseases ©6/1/2018 29 (866) 557-1746 Pili or Fimbriae Pili or Fimbriae are thin hair-like structures observed on gram negative bacteria. They are also used to transfer genetic material from one bacteria cell to another. Spores Some bacteria are capable of forming spores (also called endospore) as a means of survival under adverse conditions. During sporulation the genetic material is enclosed in several protein coats that are resistant to heat, drying and most chemicals. When the dried spore lands on a nutrient rich surface, it forms a new vegetative cell. Bacterial Nutrition All life has the same basic nutritional requirements which include: Energy. This may be light (the sun or lamps) or inorganic substances like sulfur, carbon monoxide or ammonia, or preformed organic matter like sugar, protein, fats etc. This may be nitrogen gas, ammonia, nitrate/nitrite, or a nitrogenous organic compound like protein or nucleic acid. This can be carbon dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide, or a complex organic material. All cells use oxygen in a bound form and many require gaseous oxygen (air), but oxygen is lethal to many microbes. Waterborne Diseases ©6/1/2018 30 (866) 557-1746 Phosphorous, Sulfur, Magnesium, Potassium, and Sodium. Most cells require calcium in significant quantities, but some seem to only need it in trace amounts. All life requires liquid water in order to grow and reproduce; which is why the Mars Mission is so interested in water on Mars. Some resting stages of cells, like bacterial spores, can exist for long periods without free water, but they do not grow or metabolize. The sources of these various requirements define an organism, so a description of every organism should include this information. Fastidious Many bacteria can synthesize every complex molecule they need from the basic minerals, but others, said to be fastidious, require preformed organic molecules like vitamins, amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates; humans are fastidious. In general, bacterial pathogens need more preformed organic molecules than do non- pathogens, but that is not always true.

Humans would be unable to live without the bacteria that inhabit the intestines and assist in digesting food buy cheap valacyclovir 1000mg online. Bacteria are the principal concern in evaluating the microbiological quality of drinking water generic valacyclovir 500mg on line, because some of the bacteria-caused diseases that can be transmitted by drinking water are potentially life-threatening. Typically, bacteriophages consist of an outer protein hull enclosing genetic material. Bacteriophages are much smaller than the bacteria they destroy - usually between 20 and 200 nm in size. Bacteria are classified into two groups based on a difference in cell walls, as determined by Gram staining. The Bilateria are members of the branch of Eumetazoa (Kingdom Animalia) which possess bilateral symmetry. Also, the total milligrams of oxygen required over a five-day test period to biologically assimilate the organic contaminants in one liter of wastewater maintained at 20 degrees Centigrade. Theoretically, the concept may be ultimately expanded to include other regions of the universe. Every bicarbonate ion only counts for half as much carbonate hardness as a carbonate ion does. The process requires recarbonation through the addition of carbon-dioxide to lower the pH which is raised during the initial softening process. This chemical disinfectant has been used only on a very limited scale for water treatment because of its handling difficulties. This chemical causes skin burns on contact, and a residual is difficult to obtain. This condition refers to a decrease in the ability of the sludge to settle and consequent loss over the settling tank weir. A poor or slow settling activated sludge that results from the prevalence of filamentous organisms. Every bicarbonate ion only counts for half as much carbonate hardness as a carbonate ion does. Cathodic protection interrupts corrosion by supplying an electrical current to overcome the corrosion-producing mechanism. On a centrifugal pump, it is that force which throws water from a spinning impeller. The rotating impeller creates pressure in the liquid by the velocity derived from centrifugal force. Coagulants are chemicals, such as alum, that neutralize positive or negative charges on small particles, allowing them to stick together and form larger particles that are more easily removed by sedimentation (settling) or filtration. A variety of devices, such as baffles, static mixers, impellers and in-line sprays, can be used to mix the water and distribute the chemicals evenly. Chloramines are not effective as disinfectants and are responsible for eye and skin irritation as well as strong chlorine odors. Also, means the amount of chlorine required to produce a free chlorine residual of 0. The chlorine gas is controlled, metered, introduced into a stream of injector water and then conducted as a solution to the point of application. The amount of chlorine available for sanitization after the chlorine demand has been met. Chlorine is extremely reactive, and when it comes in contact with microorganisms in water it kills them. Some public water system’s drinking water treatment plants use chlorine in a gas form because of the large volumes required. Protozoa are resistant to chlorine because they have thick coats; protozoa are removed from drinking water by filtration. Chronic should be considered a relative term depending on the life span of an organism. The measurement of chronic effect can be reduced growth, reduced reproduction, etc. Commonly referred to as sedimentation or settling basins, they are usually equipped with a motor driven chain and flight or rake mechanism to collect settled sludge and move it to a final removal point. The final step in the conventional filtration process, the clearwell provides temporary storage for the treated water. The two main purposes for this storage are to have filtered water available for backwashing the filter and to provide detention time (or contact time) for the chlorine (or other disinfectant) to kill any microorganisms that may remain in the water. Mixing is an important part of the coagulation process you want to complete the coagulation process as quickly as possible. A chemical added to initially destabilize, aggregate, and bind together colloids and emulsions to improve settleability, filterability, or drainability.

It results from the combination of hazards cheap 500 mg valacyclovir overnight delivery, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk valacyclovir 1000 mg with mastercard. Risk assessment and management would require a collaborative approach from all concerned stakeholders at all levels. This also underscoredthe need to adopt a multi dimensional endeavour involving diverse scientific, engineering, financial and social processes; the need to adopt multi disciplinary and multi sectoral approach and incorporation of risk reduction in the developmental plans and strategies. Disaster management occupies an important place in this country’s policy framework as it is the poor and the under-privileged who are worst affected on account of calamities/disasters. Disasters retard socio-economic development, further impoverish the impoverished and lead to diversion of scarce resources from development to rehabilitation and reconstruction. The steps taken by the Government of India have been translated into a National Disaster Framework culminating into the Disaster Management Act, 2005, encompassing institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention strategy, early warning system, disaster mitigation, preparedness and response and human resource development. The common strategy is to flow through the planning process of relevant stakeholders including health sector. The foregoing paragraphs summarize the legal, institutional and operational framework for disaster management in India with focus on health sector. Legal and Policy Framework Constitution:Under the constitution, disasters and health are State subjects. National Disaster Management Act, 2005 The National Disaster Management Act was enacted in 2005. It provides for legal, institutional and operational arrangements including capacity development at central, state, ‐ 181 ‐ district & local levels forprevention, preparedness, mitigation, response, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstructionfollowing natural and manmade disasters. Transaction of Business Rules: In exercise of the powers conferred by clause 3 of article 77 of the constitution, Transaction of Business Rules have been framed which provides for the Standing Committee of the Cabinet on Management of Natural Calamities to oversee all aspects relating to management of natural calamities including assessment, programme development, implementation, and 134 monitoring. Relevant Acts supporting Disaster Management A number of legislations, other than those stated above, support management of disasters. At the national level, some of the important Acts like the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1983 and the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 and Rules (1986) provide for protection of Water, Air and environment respectively. The Environment Protection Act, 1986 also provides for the Biomedical Waste (management and Handling) Rules 1998 with a view to controlling the indiscriminate disposal of hospital/biomedical wastes. At the State and District level, the Epidemic Diseases Act (Act 111 of 1897) provides for prevention and spread of dangerous epidemic diseases. Disaster Management Policy Disaster Management Policy for the country was unveiled in 2009 by National Disaster Management Authority. The policy advocates a paradigm shift in Disaster Management from relief centric approach to a proactive regime emphasis on preparedness, prevention and ‐ 182 ‐ mitigation. It also calls for a holistic approach and recommends incorporation of disaster management into the sustainable development planning by all concerned departments. Powers are vested with the authority to perform certain functions that include laying down of national policy and guidance for disaster management, approval of the national plan and plans of various ministries, capacity development, coordination with various agencies to ensure implementation of national policy and guidelines. It also has a lead role to initiate the institutional measures for prevention, mitigation and preparedness with a view to generate a holistic, integrated and preventive approach to disaster management. It also has the supporting role to provide medical / health care to mitigate health impact of other types of disasters. State Health Department: This is the nodal department for managing health sector prevention, preparedness, mitigation, response, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction for disasters. Operational Framework Public Health Delivery System in India Under the Indian constitution, clear responsibilities have been delineated between the Central and State Governments keeping in mind federal structure of the country. Health being a State subject, the State Governments (through state, district and block level public health institutions and state owned medical colleges) are primarily responsible to meet the public health needs (both preventive and primary, secondary and tertiary curative care) of the population and manage the public health delivery system on day-to-day basis and also meet the emergency public health needs of the population. The Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare support the state in terms of advocacy, laying down guidelines, standard operating procedures, capacity building and provide logistic support on selective basis. The specialized central government hospitals and institutions provide tertiary care facilities in the selected cities and also in the selected specialities. These institutions in the process of its functioning also act as reservoir for large pool of medical manpower which facilitates emergency mobilization during crisis situation. Ministry of Defence in particular acts as first responders based on State Government’s request. In addition to the public sector involvement, the private sector also plays a significant responsibility in the public health delivery system in India. Approximately, 70 percent of health services are provided by private sector on payment basis. Private hospitals are better organized and equipped since they are permitted to generate their own resources. Strengthening of health delivery system to meet the routine and emergencies public health needs As per the National Disaster Management Act, the state and the district authorities are responsible to operationalize the disaster management plan at the community level.