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By U. Nemrok. Oakland University. 2018.

The dyslexic may have caregiver cheap panmycin 250mg amex, hero panmycin 250 mg on line, scapegoat, saint, bad girl or boy, little trouble transferring information across modalities, for prince or princess—that serve to restrict feelings, expe- example from verbal to written forms. Only a small percentage of fied patient’s problems function to disguise the larger dyslexics have vision disorders, however, and it is now family issues. For example, a child may be regarded as generally agreed by physicians, researchers, and educa- a bully and a troublemaker in school and labeled a tors that dyslexia is primarily a. They may talk to members individually, together, and in Originally it was thought that dyslexia affected more subgroups. They may ask family members to reenact sit- males than females (in a ratio of 5:1), but later studies uations, or to do “homework” by modifying elements of found males to be only slightly more likely than females their behavior and responses. Figures for diagnosed child dyslexics are one of the goals of family counseling is to reframe prob- skewed because for various reasons boys tend to be re- lems so that family members can see specific events and ferred more frequently for. Thomas Edison, Albert Ein- stein, Woodrow Wilson, General George Patton, and Au- guste Rodin are thought to have been dyslexic. There are many treatment approaches available to the public, ranging from visual stimulation to diets to en- hancement of regular language education. However, it is generally agreed that specialized education is the only gist, Educational Researcher, Review of Educational Re- search, American Educational Research Journal. In their research, they have found that preschoolers understand that thinking is a human, Flavell’s first position was as a clinical psychologist mental activity and that it can involve things that are in at a Veterans Administration Hospital in Colorado. They distin- ever he left there a year later to accept a position at the guish thinking from other activities such as talking, feel- University of Rochester in New York, first as a clinical ing, seeing, or knowing. However preschoolers greatly associate and then as an assistant professor of psycholo- underestimate the amount that they and others think, and gy. In though Flavell first undertook to write a book on theories other words, Flavell has found that, although preschool- of developmental psychology, he soon switched to a ers know that rocks do not think, they also don’t believe major study of the work of , publishing that their parents think all that much. This Throughout his career, Flavell’s books have received was the first major work in English on the research and critical acclaim for both their scholarship and their lively theories of Piaget and marked the start of the modern sci- and entertaining prose. That same year, Flavell of the and con- traveled to Paris for additional studies at the Sorbonne. Flavell’s research at Rochester focused on children’s understanding of the roles of others and on children’s Margaret Alic communication skills and developing skills. He first evaluated the skills needed for role-taking, the un- derstanding of what another person sees, knows, needs, Coombs, Karen. He served as president of the Society for Research in Child Development from 1979 to 1981. Since his arrival at Stanford, Flavell and his long- time research associates, his wife, Ellie Flavell, and Frances L. Greene, have studied preschoolers at the Bing Nursery School on the Stanford campus. They have also Forensic psychologists often work within the judi- studied elementary-school and college students. In re- cial system in such diverse areas as determining an in- cent years, Flavell has researched and developed his the- mate’s readiness for parole; evaluation of Austrian psychoanalyst and pioneer in the field of child psychoanalysis; daughter of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Systematic representation of data, arranged so that the observed frequency of occurrence of data falling within certain ranges, classes, or categories, is shown. Children realize that they ness of physical difference is followed by awareness of are male or female and are aware of the gender of others the cultural differences between males and females and by the age of three. However, at these ages they still do identification with the parent of the same sex, whose be- not understand that people cannot change genders the havior the child begins to imitate. Like its female gender is permanent, which occurs at about the age of counterpart, which Freud termed the Electra complex, seven. At this point they start the behavior of the Oedipus complex revolves around a child’s wish to members of their own sex. Although it has been support- possess the parent of the opposite sex, while simultane- ed by some research studies, Kohlberg’s theory has also ously wishing to eliminate the parent of the same sex, been criticized on the grounds that children do show cer- who is perceived as a rival. This cestuous desires toward his mother, while regarding his points to the fact that there are others factors, such as father as a rival for her affections. Fearing that the father parental , that influence the adoption of will cut off his penis in retaliation—a phenomenon sex-typed behavior. Freud called castration anxiety—the boy represses his forbidden desires and finally comes to identify with the father, internalizing his values and characteristics, which form the basis for the child’s. In the female version of this theory, the young girl’s discovery of sexu- al difference results in penis envy, which parallels castra- tion anxiety in boys. The girl blames her mother for de- priving her of a penis, and desires her father because he possesses one.

A number of antipsychotic medications block the chemoreceptor trigger zone and vomiting (emetic) center of the brain discount panmycin 500 mg without prescription. Although blocking dopamine improves the patient’s thought processes and behavior buy panmycin 500 mg without prescription, it can cause side effects. These include symptoms of Parkinsonism (see Parkinsonism previously dis- cussed in this chapter). Patients who undergo long-term treatment for psychosis using antipsychotic medications also might be prescribed drugs to treat the symptoms of Parkinsonism. The typical category of antipsychotic med- ication is further subdivided into phenothiazines and nonphenothiazines. Phenothiazines block norepinephrine causing sedative and hypotensive effects early in treatment. Nonphenothiazines include butyrophenone haloperidol (Haldol) whose phar- macologics are similar to phenothiazines as it alters the effects of dopamine by blocking the dopamine receptor sites. Included in this group are prochlorperazine (Compazine), fluphenazine (Prolixin), perphenazine (Trilafon), and trifluoperazine (Stelazine). These have replaced sedatives that were traditionally used because they have fewer and less potent side effects, especially if an overdose of the medication is given to the patient. Anxiolytics are prescribed when the patient’s anxiety reaches a level where the patient becomes disabled and is unable to perform normal activities. Anxiolytics have a sedative-hypnotic effect on the patient, but not an antipsychotic effect. Primary anxiety is not caused by a medical condition or drug use but may be sit- uational. Anxiolytics are usually not administered for secondary anxiety unless the sec- ondary cause is severe or untreatable. Benzodizepines include chlordiazepoxide (Librium), diazepam (Valium), chlorazepatge dipotassium (Tranxene), oxazepam (Serax), lorazepam (Ativan), and alprazolam (Xanax). Depression About 20% of Americans are depressed; however, one-third receives medical or psychiatric help for their depression. Depression is characterized by mood changes and loss of interest in normal activities. Patients who are depressed might have insomnia, fatigue, a feeling of despair, and an inability to concen- trate. Depression is caused by a number of factors including genetic predisposition, social and environmental factors, and biologic conditions such as insufficient monoamine neurotransmitter (norepinephrine and serotonin). Causes of major depression can include genetic predisposition, social and environmental factors, and biologic conditions. Antidepressants are used to treat depressions, however they also can mask sui- cidal tendencies (Table 15-3). They do not cause hypotension, sedation, anticholinergic effects, or cardiotoxi- city. A n t i c h o l i n e r g i c I n s o m n i a / C a t e g o r y e f f e c t S e d a t i o n H y p o t e n s i o n G I d i s t r e s s C a r d i o t o x i c i t y S e i z u r e s A g i t a t i o n T r i c y c l i c A n t i d e p r e s s a n t s A m i t r i p t y l i n e ( E l a v i l ) + + + + + + + + + + + – + + + + + + + – C l o m i p r a m i n e ( A n a f r a n i l ) + + + + + + + + + + – + + + + + + – D e s p r a m i n e ( N o r p r a m i n ) + + + + + – + + + + + D o x e p i n ( S i n e q u a n ) + + + + + + + + + – + + + + – I m i p r a m i n e ( T o f r a n i l ) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + N o r t r i p t y l i n e ( A v e n t y l ) + + + + + – + + + + + – P r o t r i p t y l i n e ( V i v a c t i l ) + + + + + + – + + + + + T r i m i p r a m i n e ( S u r m o n t i l ) + + + + + + + + + + – + + + + + + – S e l e c t i v e S e r o t o n i n R e u p t a k e I n h i b i t o r s F l u o x e t i n e ( P r o z a c ) – + – + + + – 0 / + + + F l u v o x a m i n e ( L u v o x ) – + + – + + + – – + + P a r o x e t i n e ( P a x i l ) – + – + + + – – + + S e r t r a l i n e ( Z o l o f t ) – + – + + + – – + + T a b l e 1 5 - 3. The enzyme monoamine oxidase inactivates norepinephrine, dopamine, epinephrine, and serotonin. Examples of these drugs includes isocarboxazid (Marplan), phenelzine sulfate (Nardil), and tranycypromine sulfate (Parnate). A list of drugs utilized in the treatment of depression is provided in the Appendix. Summary There are many medications that either interfere with impulses transmitted over the neural pathways or stimulate those impulses. Medications that interfere with impulses are called inhibitors and usually compete with neurotransmitters for receptor sites. That is, the medication gets to the receptor site before the neurotransmitters blocking the neurotransmitters from delivering the impulse to the receptor site. There are four major groups of medications that stimulate the central nervous system. Caffeine also stimu- lates the cerebral cortex and stimulates respiration by acting on the brain stem and medulla. Anorexiants inhibit appetite by stimulating the cerebral cortex and the hypothalamus. There are seven broad classifications of medications that depress the central nervous system. These are sedative-hypnotics, general and local anesthetics, anal- gesics, narcotic analgesics, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, and antidepressants. Sedative-hypnotics diminish the patient’s physical and mental responses without affecting the patient’s consciousness. Local anesthetics block pain at the site where the medication is administered without affecting the patient’s consciousness.

Anxiety is an important and useful human emotion; it is associated with the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the physiological and behavioral responses that help protect us from danger buy 500 mg panmycin with amex. But too much anxiety can be debilitating order panmycin 250mg on line, and every year millions of people suffer from anxiety disorders, which arepsychological disturbances marked by irrational fears, [1] often of everyday objects and situations (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005). Generalized Anxiety Disorder Consider the following, in which “Chase‖ describes her feelings of a persistent and exaggerated sense of anxiety, even when there is little or nothing in her life to provoke it: Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. The best way to describe it is like a really bad feeling of negative inevitability, like something really bad is impending, but I don’t know what. It’s like I’m on trial for murder or I’m just waiting to be sent down for something. I have it all of the time but it gets worse in waves that come from nowhere with no apparent triggers. I used to get it before going out for nights out with friends, and it kinda stopped me from doing it as I’d rather not go out and stress about the feeling, but now I have it [2] all the time so it doesn’t really make a difference anymore. The sufferer cannot deal with what is causing the anxiety, nor avoid it, because there is no clear cause for anxiety. In fact, the sufferer frequently knows, at least cognitively, that there is really nothing to worry about. Generalized anxiety disorder is most likely to develop between the ages of 7 and 40 years, but its influence may in some cases lessen with [4] age (Rubio & Lopez-Ibor, 2007). I was driving home, my three little girls were in their car seats in the back, and all of a sudden I couldn‘t breathe, I broke out into a sweat, and my heart began racing and literally beating against my ribs! Symptoms of a panic attack include shortness of breath, heart palpitations, trembling, dizziness, choking sensations, nausea, and an intense feeling of dread or impending doom. Panic attacks can often be mistaken for heart attacks or other serious physical illnesses, and they may lead the person experiencing them to go to a hospital emergency room. Panic attacks may last as little as one or as much as 20 minutes, but they often peak and subside within about 10 minutes. They focus their attention on the thoughts and images of their fears, becoming excessively sensitive to cues that signal the possibility of threat (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, [6] 2002). They may also become unsure of the source of their arousal, misattributing it to situations that are not actually the cause. As a result, they may begin to avoid places where attacks have occurred in the past, such as driving, using an elevator, or being in public places. Phobias A phobia (from the Greek word phobos, which means “fear‖) is a specific fear of a certain object, situation, or activity. The fear experience can range from a sense of unease to a full- blown panic attack. Most people learn to live with their phobias, but for others the fear can be so debilitating that they go to extremes to avoid the fearful situation. A sufferer of arachnophobia (fear of spiders), for example, may refuse to enter a room until it has been checked thoroughly for spiders, or may refuse to vacation in the countryside because spiders may be there. A common phobia is social phobia, extreme shyness around people or discomfort in social situations. Social phobia may be specific to a certain event, such as speaking in public or using a public restroom, or it can be a more generalized anxiety toward almost all people outside of close family and friends. People with social phobia will often experience physical symptoms in public, such as sweating profusely, blushing, stuttering, nausea, and dizziness. They are convinced that everybody around them notices these symptoms as they are occurring. The most incapacitating phobia is agoraphobia, defined as anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing, or in which help may not be [7] available (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Typical places that provoke the panic attacks are parking lots; crowded streets or shops; and bridges, tunnels, or expressways. People (mostly women) who suffer from agoraphobia may have great difficulty leaving their homes and interacting with other people. Phobias affect about 9% of American adults, and they are about twice as prevalent in women as in men (Fredrikson, Annas, Fischer, & Wik, 1996; Kessler, Meron-Ruscio, Shear, & Wittchen, [8] 2009). In most cases phobias first appear in childhood and adolescence, and usually persist into adulthood. As he describes it, I have got this obsessive-compulsive disorder where I have to have everything in a straight line or everything has to be in pairs. I’ll put my Pepsi cans in the fridge and if there’s one too many then I’ll put it in another cupboard somewhere. Before I can relax, I have to move all the leaflets and all the books and put them in a drawer. We may continuously replay a favorite song in our heads, worry about getting the right outfit for an upcoming party, or find ourselves analyzing a series of numbers that seem to have a certain pattern. Washing your hands once or even twice to make sure that they are clean is normal; washing them 20 times is not. The sufferers know that these rituals are senseless, but they cannot bring themselves to stop them, in part because the relief that they feel after they perform them acts as a reinforcer, making the behavior more likely to occur again. I decided to change the kitchen around one day, get all new stuff, so I threw everything Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor.