Arthritis Australia

By D. Rendell. Bridgewater State College.

Ultrasound screening programs during 1st and early 2nd trimester pregnancies now include placental localization order 125 mg grifulvin v with mastercard. Vasa Previa - (vasa praevia) placental abnormality where the fetal vessels lie within the membranes close too or crossing the inner cervical os (opening) purchase grifulvin v 125mg visa. This occurs normally in 1:2500-5000 pregnancies and leads to complications similar too those for Placenta Previa. Hydatidiform mole pathology Several forms of hydatidiform mole: partial mole, complete mole and persistent gestational trophoblastic tumor. Many of these tumours arise from a haploid sperm fertilizing an egg without a female pronucleus (the alternative form, an embryo without sperm contribution, is called parthenogenesis). In some cases though, long cords can wrap around limbs or the fetus neck, which can then restrict blood flow or lead to tissue or nerve damage, and therefore effect develoment. Cord knotting - can also occur (1%) in most cases these knots have no effect, in some cases of severe knotting this can prevents the passage of placental blood. Cord torsion - Rare event where even without knot formation can also affect placental blood flow, even leading to fetal demise. The variety of bacterial infections that can occur during pregnancy is as variable as the potential developmental effects, from virtually insignificant to a major developmental, abortive or fatal in outcome. Malarial infection of the placenta by sequestration of the infected red blood cells leading to low birth weight and other effects. There are four types of malaria caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum (main), Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium malariae). This condition is Malaria (plasmodium common in regions where malaria is endemic with women carrying falciparum) their first pregnancy (primigravida). Chronic Villitis - can occur following placental infection leading to maternal inflammation of the villous stroma, often with associated intervillositis. Meconium Myonecrosis - prolonged meconium exposure leads to toxic death of myocytes of placental vessels (umbilical cord or chorionic plate). Neuroblastoma - a fetal malignancy that leads to an enlarged placenta, with tumor cells in the fetal circulation and rarely in the chorionic villi. Thrombophilias - (protein C or S deficiency, factor V Leiden, sickle cell disease, antiphospholipid antibody) can generate an increased fibrin/fibrinoid deposition in the maternal or intervillous space, this can trap and kill villi. The human placenta is classified as : Endotheliochorial Haemochorial Epitheliochoria Mesoeliochorial 3. Stem villi - or terminal villi, are the region of main exchange, surrounded by maternal blood in intervillous spaces. The 4 cellular layers separating maternal and fetal blood in sequence are: spiral artery wall, Nichbaur layer, cytotrophoblast and Hofbaur layer syncitiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast, villi connective tissue and fetal capillary endothelium maternal lacuna, trophoblast layer, endothelial and fetal red blood cell fetal capillary endothelium, villi connective tissue, cytotrophoblast and syncitiotrophoblast Submit References Textbooks The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology (8th Edition) by Keith L. Applied to describe the connection between peripheral blood vessels without an intervening capillary bed. This process is essential for the progress of implantation and establishing fetal-maternal communication. Uterine glands provide histiotrophic nutrition for the human fetus during the first trimester of pregnancy. Histotroph is the nutritional material accumulated in spaces between the maternal and fetal tissues, derived from the maternal endometrium and the uterine glands. This nutritional material is absorbed by phagocytosis initially by blastocyst trophectoderm and then by trophoblast of the placenta. Uterine glands provide histiotrophic nutrition for the human fetus during the first trimester of pregnancy. Used as an antihypertensive drug to lower blood pressure in pre-eclampsia, acting by either a direct or indirect central vasodilatory mechanism. A recent study suggests this drug may have a direct effect on placental and/or endothelial cell function in pre-eclampsia patients, altering angiogenic proteins. They can provide immune protection to the embryo, but may also participate in immune disease (fetal erythroblastosis). Fibrin-type fibrinoid (maternal blood-clot product) and matrix-type fibrinoid (secreted by invasive extravillous trophoblast cells). Obviously part of the fetal blood, but can be collected at birth for theraputic use containing blood stem cells (see cord blood banks). Increases in volume (myxomatous, connective tissue embedded in mucus) at parturition to assist closure of placental blood vessels. This placental cord substance is named after Thomas Wharton (1614-1673) an English physician and anatomist who first described it. Glossary Links A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | Numbers | Original Glossary (http://embryology.

Surface tension (¡) is defned as the force acting perpendicularly inwards on the surface layer of a liquid to pull its surface molecules towards the interior of the liquid mass buy grifulvin v 125mg with amex. Density - Macloed’s equation relates surface tension to the density of the liquid (r) and that of its vapour (r’) grifulvin v 125 mg visa. As the temperature of the liquid increases, the surface tension decreases and becomes zero at the critical temperature. Solutes - Solutes that enter the liquid raise the surface tension of the solvent, while solutes that concentrate on the surface lower the surface tension. Emulsifcation of fats by bile salts - Bile salts lower the surface tension of the fat droplets in the duodenum, which aids in digestion and absorption of lipids. Surface tension of plasma: The surface tension of plasma is 70 dynes/cm, which is slightly lower than that of water. Hay’s test for bile salts - The principle of surface tension is used to check the presence of bile salts in urine. When fne sulphur powder is sprinkled on urine containing bile salts ( as in jaundice), it sinks due to the surface tension lowering effect of bile salts. Dipalmitoyl lecithin is a surfactant that is secreted by the lung alveoli, which reduces the surface tension and prevents the collapse of lung alveoli during expiration. Osmosis is a colligative property of solution that depends on the number of molecules or ions of the solute in the solutions. A solution having lower or higher osmotic pressure with respect to the other is called as hypo-osmotic or hyperosmotic solutions respectively. The osmotic pressure exhibited by these impermeable solutes is called as the tonicity of the solution. A solution having lower or higher tonicities with respect to the other is called as hypotonic or hypertonic solutions respectively. The ability of the membrane to withstand hypotonic solution depends upon the integrity of the membrane. Certain genetic disorders like sickle cell anemia and defciency of vitamin E makes the erythrocyte membrane more fragile. Osmotic pressure of blood is largely due to its mineral ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium and protein. The osmotic pressure exerted by proteins is of considerable biological signifcance owing to the impermeability of the plasma membrane to the colloidal particles. The net difference in the hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure is responsible for the fltration of water at the arterial end of the capillary and the reabsorption of the same at the venous end. The renal excretion of water is regulated partly by the osmotic pressure exerted by the colloids in the blood plasma. Increased urination (polyuria) occurring in diabetes patients is due to the increased water retention by the urinary glucose. Donnan Membrane Equilibrium Let us consider two compartments separated by a semi permeable membrane, which is permeable to water and crystalloids, but not to colloidal particles. One of the compartment (A) is flled with a moles of NaCl, and the other compartment (B) is flled with b moles of NaR, in which R happens to be a non diffusible ion. So, the ionic concentration at equilibrium in both the compartments will be as follows, (A) (B) a-x Na+ Na+ b + x a-x Cl- R- b. Due to imbalance in the electrolytes, swelling of proteins occur, which is called as Donnan osmotic effect. Due to metabolism and dietary intake, large quantities of acids and bases are produced in the body and they have to be transported through blood for elimination. This is effectively done in the body by means of the buffers present in the blood and by two mechanisms, namely the respiratory mechanism and the renal mechanism. Since the concentrations of phosphate and organic acids are low in plasma, they do not play a major role in regulation of pH. Hemoglobin buffer system The buffering capacity of hemoglobin is due to the presence of imidazole groups in its histidine residues. When the blood returns to the lungs, O2 tension in the lungs is high resulting in the oxygenation of Hb. These acids are effectively buffered by the bicarbonate system, but at the expense of the bicarbonate, which is called as the alkali reserve of the body. In acidemia, inorder to bring the low pH to normal, the excessive H+ ions should be excreted and bicarbonate excretion should be reduced. On the other hand, during alkalemia, the kidneys excrete the excess bicarbonate producing an alkaline urine (pH 8. The three important mechanisms attributed by the kidneys to regulate the blood pH are (i) Reabsorption of bicarbonate (ii) Buffering by phosphate buffers (iii) Formation of ammonium ions. It starts in the mouth, continues in the stomach and small intestine and is completed in the large intestine.

These carbohydrates are usually stored in the muscles and the liver purchase grifulvin v 250mg free shipping, where they are later used for energy discount grifulvin v 250mg fast delivery. The main sources of carbohydrates are bread, wheat, potatoes of all kinds, maize, rice, cassava, ‘shiro’, pasta, macaroni, ‘kocho’, banana, sweets, sugar cane, sweet fruits, and honey. Other foods like vegetables, beans, nuts and seeds contain carbohydrates, but in lesser amounts. You need to know the classes of carbohydrates to enable you to give relevant advice to patients with special needs like diabetes (when someone has problems regulating the amounts of glucose in their body). Monosaccharides and disaccharides are referred to as simple sugars or simple carbohydrates that our body can easily utilise. For this reason, people with diabetes mellitus shouldn’t eat too many of these carbohydrates. Polysaccharides are called complex carbohydrates and they need to be broken down into simple sugars to be used by our body. Proteins are needed in our diets for growth (especially important for children, teens and pregnant women) and to improve immune functions. They also play an important role in making essential hormones and enzymes, in tissue repair, preserving lean muscle mass, and supplying energy in times when carbohydrates are not available. Pregnant women need protein to build their bodies and that of the babies and placentas, to make extra blood and for fat storage. All animal foods contain more protein than plants and are therefore usually better sources of body building foods. Fat is found in meat, chicken, milk products, butters, creams, avocado, cooking oils and fats, cheese, fish and ground nuts. The classification is important to enable you to advise your community about which fats can be consumed with less risk to people’s health. Eating too much saturated fat is not good for a person’s health, as it can cause heart and blood vessel problems. Examples include fats from fish, oil seeds (sesame and sunflower), maize oil and ground nut oil and breastmilk. As a general rule, plant sources of fats are better for a person’s health than the animal sources, because animal fats contain more saturated fats. Butter, meat fats and oils from animal sources are not good fats, because they have a high amount of saturated fats. People can live without solid food for a few weeks, but we cannot live without water for more than a few days. That is why giving drinks are so important when people lose a lot of water, such as when they have diarrhoea. For the body to make cells and fluids such as tears, digestive juices and breastmilk. For keeping the lining of the mouth, intestine, eyelids and lungs wet and healthy. Foods rich in fibre are ‘kocho’; vegetables like cabbage, ‘kosta’, carrots, cassava; fruits like banana and avocado; peas and beans; whole-grain cereals like wheat flour and refined maize or sorghum. Fibre makes food bulky or bigger — thiscanhelpapersonwhois overweight to eat less food. Fibre slows the absorption of nutrients, so it helps nutrients to enter the blood stream slowly. In this section you have learned about the macronutrients: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water and fibre, and how they nourish the body. You are now going to learn more about vitamins and minerals, the important micronutrients. They are grouped together because, as their name implies, they are a vital factor in the diet. Classifications of vitamins Vitamins are classified into two groups: Fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) are soluble in fats and fat solvents. Water soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C, and folic acid) are soluble in water and so they cannot be stored in the body. However, an adequate micronutrient intake can only be achieved through sufficient intake of a balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits and vegetables. Vitamins Function Food sources Vitamin A Night vision Breastmilk, tomatoes, cabbage, Epithelial cells form the thin layer Healing epithelial cells lettuce, pumpkins of tissue lining the gut, Normal development of teeth Mangoes, papaya, carrots respiratory and genitourinary and bones Liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, systems. Vitamin K For blood clotting Green leafy vegetables Fruits, cereals, meat, dairy products B complex Metabolism of carbohydrates, Milk, egg yolk, liver, kidney proteins and fats and heart Whole grain cereals, meat, whole bread, fish, bananas Scurvy is a disease caused by Vitamin C Prevention of scurvy Fresh fruits (oranges, banana, vitamin C deficiency which leads mango, grapefruits, lemons, Aiding wound healing to sore skin, bleeding gums and potatoes) and vegetables internal bleeding. Examples of minerals include calcium, iron, iodine, fluorine, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, selenium, and sodium. Minerals Function Food sources Calcium Gives bones and teeth rigidity and Milk, cheese and dairy products strength Foods fortified with calcium, e.